Marketing Strategy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Marketing Strategy - Assignment Example Taking cue from international brand, Tesco, along with its various marketing and global expansion strategies over the years, the report will evaluate the various marketing strategies, which are essential for success of a retail firm while entering into a new or foreign market. The report will also throw light on concepts such as, localisation. A situational analysis of the Turkish retail environment will be conducted, which will help in understanding Tesco’s current operations and future in Turkish market. The development of retail sector is based on democratization of the consumption of consumer, which is a result of the development of low price model of economies. This model is founded on value offerings oriented towards low pricing ranges. For effective implementation, this model relies on controlled distribution costs and increasing the circulation speed. Marketing is a critical factor in this category of business and expectations of customers are the major focus, in order to locate the lowest possible prices. However, marketing tends to merge with communication and advertisement in order to bring out the best results out of veracious models and theories adopted by the business. With the increasing success of the retail sector, companies have now started to realize the need for change in their strategies and tactics, majorly by understanding and adapting the evolution in customers’ behaviour as well as expectations (Holt, Quelch and Taylor, 2004). Securing a consumers’ loyalty and increasing their wallet share have taken an important place in the strategies of these retail companies; rather than just acquiring new customers. A sharpening competition among retail brands has prompted these retail firms in paying more attention to their marketing activities. The integrated marketing communication, adopted by many big retail brands, such as, Tesco and Walmart, has given

Domain Name Disputes Essay Example for Free

Domain Name Disputes Essay A domain name is user-friendly way of expressing the Internet Protocol (IP) address of a web location. When the domain name of the web site is entered, it would provide a direct link to access the content located on the site of the IP address. The domain name has characters and numerals separated out by dots (. ) which suggest various levels in the domain name. A domain name can have anywhere between one to 63 characters, and can include certain special characters such as (-). The valid characters of the domain name include A to Z and 1 to 9 and 0. Capitalisation is not used as a method to distinguish from one domain name to another . Domain name has been a very user-friendly way of accessing content on the internet, and hence people often use it to search for businesses on the net. Today’s domain name system was earlier utilised by the network set up by the department of defence and academic organisations for research and communications purposes. This Domain name system (DNS) was initiated as early as 1984 and has been extended to all areas of the world where the internet is accessible today. The domain name would actually convert into an IP address, which would suggest a physical location of a computer or a system on the Internet . Since, not more than one site can have one address; there have been a lot of conflicts in the use of domain names. A particular domain name would have different levels. The various levels in the domain name are separated or recognised using the special character dot (. ) (to differentiate between the various levels). If you take the domain name abc. xxx, it is a second level domain name, consisting of 2 levels, abc and xxx. On the other hand, mno. abc. xxx, consists of three levels, namely mno, abc and xxx. The characters in the domain name are usually counted from the right to the left . The Internet protocol addresses, domain names, etc, which are utilised for internet management are today generally handled by an organisation known as the â€Å"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority† (IANA). In turn the daily affairs regarding the assignment of top level and second level domain names are taken care of by individual Internet Registries (IR) . There are several hierarchies of domain names including top level domain names (TLDs’), Second Level Domain names (SLD’s), third level domain names (3LD’s), etc. The management of the top level domain names are done by the ICANN at the international level. They also provide resolution of disputes at the international level through an arbitrary and simplified process known as ‘UDRP’ (Uniform Domain Resolution Policy) . The TLD’s are the domain name that appears after the last (. ) in the domain name. For example, in a general domain name such as abc. com, the . com is the TLD. Again, the TLD can be of two types namely, a generic TLD and a country specific TLD. The generic TLD’s include . com, . net, . info, . xxx, . org, . edu, . tv, . res, . mil, . gov, . int, etc. The country specific TLD’s include Top level domain names that are specific to certain countries such as . fr, . eu, . in, . my, . us, etc. For specific top level domain name types, a specific registry would be approved (assigned by the ICANN), to assign, manage and handle any issues that may arise for that TLD . TLD’s can be again classified as two types depending on the restriction imposed to register and assign, including restricted generic TLD’s and unrestricted generic TLD’s. Restricted generic TLD’s would require certain amount of eligibility to register in the registry. For instance, the TLd . int, requires that the body registering be an international approved organisation such as the WIPO, WHO, etc. No person can register under this TLD without eligibility. Verisign (an internet registry) would likewise permit registration of telecom organisations to register under the generic TLD . net. Only non-profit organisations, institutions, voluntary organisations, etc, can register under the TLD . org. Organisations that are governmental in nature, can register under the domain name . gov. Unrestricted domain names, do not require eligibility regarding organisation type or geographical location, and any person can register under such domain names without restrictions, on a first come first served basis. One such domain name is the . com, which accounts for about half of all the domain names registered in the world. People wanting a domain name under the . com TLD, need not demonstrate any eligibility, but can register a particular domain name on a first come first served basis . Many people site that the greater amount of interests by commercial organisations in the . com registry and the offering of registration on a first come first served basis, has created huge conflicts in the domain name allocation. Country coded top level domain names are assigned domain names based on country specifications. Only if the organisation is located in a certain country or provides business or services to a particular country would it be permitted to use that ccTLD. For instance . uk or . my are TLD’s belonging to the United Kingdom and Malaysia, respectively . The second level domain name is the portion of the domain name that lies before the (. ) of the TLD. This may include a unique name corresponding to an IP address or may be even suggestive of the geographical location of the business. For instance in abc. net, the second level domain name is abc. On the other hand, abc. uk. org, the second level domain name is . uk, and it suggests the country code. Abc, would then belong to a third level domain name (3LD). The United Kingdom is a country that follows a top-level country coded domain name. For instance, the domain of several organisations in the UK would be abc. org. uk and not abc. uk. org . Domain name and Intellectual Property Rights Many courts have tried to define what a domain name is. They consider it to be an address, which has to be selected by the user, and since one user would be using one address, it needs to be unique and not identical. The courts also give consideration that people would often try to guess the web address from the name, location and other features of the applicant. A domain name is more of a sign or a mark which can help to distinguish the goods and services of one trader from the goods and the services of another. Hence, a domain name can be having an intellectual value and can be given an â€Å"Intellectual Property Right Protection† . Following a rise in the traffic and popularity of the internet, there has been a rise in the domain name issues. Domain name were considered to be earlier more of addresses that helped to located the trader or an organisation on the cyber world. However, today domain names are turning out to be more of identifiers, trademarks, marks or indications of the goods, services, etc, of a particular trader. A domain name consists of alphabets, numerals, punctuation marks, etc, and hence possesses the characteristics of a trademark. For many companies, the value of the domain name is considered great as they would be using the internet for business . Today domain name rather than the name of the companies are considered to be identifiers and are often being used as advertisements. Hence, in many instances, domain names and trademarks are in conflict. It is important to note several special characteristics of domain names:- 1. They are global as once they are registered anybody from the world can use the address to gain access to the trader’s web site 2. They need to be unique as only one address can lead to a web site 3. Domain name are often guessed by the users, and hence minor changes or errors need to ensure that the user still is able to reach the intended location 4. An honest and current domain name user cannot exist as in the case of trademarks 5. Domain can cannot be given for style of writing, colouring patterns, use of images, etc Companies have moved their business over to the internet and this has created several conflicts with the traditional trademark owners. If a traditional trademark owner finds that a internet business company is using a name similar to the trademark’s owner, then he has to prove that the internet business is in fact using the name in bad faith, trying to dilute the name of the trademark owner, to create unfair competition or to create confusion in the minds of the consumer. Earlier, the NSI had a dispute resolution policy, but there was a lot of controversy in the processes, such that both opposing parties had to come to an agreement. The ICANN has implemented URDP that would be applied in all domain name disputes that are used in bad faith . Organisations concerned with domain name Issues When the internet was initially started and expanded for commercial and academic use, the non-military segment of domain name allocation was done by the NSF (National Science Foundation). This was followed till 1992, and in the year 1993, the Network Solutions Incorporation was formed which helped to register all the generic TLD’s, . net’s, . com’s, etc . Till the year 1999, the NSI ensured that all the registration and allocation of second level domain names for the major TLD’s was brought about. Considering that about half of all the domain names are in the . com segment, NSI had a major role to play in allocating domain names. They also had some amount of control over dispute resolution processes. However, the NSI did not have any official mediation processes, and was not responsible officially for domain name conflicts. Initially, the NSI provided registration to the domain names on a first come first served basis and did not check the credibility of the registering organisation. This according to many has led to conflicts regarding domain names across the world. The NSI did not check whether the domain name was a part of the party’s name . Slowly there was huge controversy regarding the manner in which domain names were allocated and provided registration by the NSI. There was a huge increase in the trademark disputes especially in the . com TLD domain. The IANA had no concern for legal issues over the domain name allocations. Hence, many nations including the US had concern over the allocation of domain names over the internet . In 1997, the management of several generic TLD’s were handed over to the International Ad Hoc Committee (IAHC). The organisation helped in framing 7 new generic TLD’s and ensuring greater amount of healthy competition in the second level domain names . The NSI and the IANA were together concerned with the development of a set of rules and regulations for the assignment of domain names. They developed a corporation that would have jurisdiction for the assignment of domain names throughout the world. This organisation (ICANN) also helped in the development of rules and regulations for the internet domain names. The US DOC also played a major role in the development of the ICANN. The final version of the bylaws by the ICANN was released on October 2, 1998, and released by the DOC. On November 1998, the ICANN and the DOC decidedly to jointly design rules, regulations, mechanisms and methods to ensure Domain name functions. The DOC and other organisations were interested in bringing about better competition and ensuring stability. The role of the US government was slowly being transferred to the ICANN. The NSI also changed its name to Verisign. It was concerned with developing a shared registration system and provides services under the generic TLD’s such as . com, . net, etc. Verisign has to sell certain number of registers in order to have authority of the . com register in 2001. However, some of the registries of Verisign and ICANN still are shared from May 2001. Verisign would operate various registries such as the . org registry till 2002, the . net registry till 2005, the . com registry till 2007. The ICANN has allocated the . org registry from 2002 to 2008 to Public Internet Registry and Verisign for the . net registry from 2005 to 2011 . Public and social issues concerned with domain name allocation The domain name has turned out to be a huge business model for several companies. The ads-per-click policy, which would ensure that advertisements placed in the domain name would make more money than the domain itself, would ensure that the domain is continued. On the other hand, if the cost of the domain is more than the advertisements, then the domain is ceased for the next year. There is also a five-day grace period (following registration), which ensures that anybody who has registered a wrong domain can go back and correct his/her mistake. Today, domain names are created and dropped at a very fast rate, and hence, people are in huge confusions. This is happening at a very fast rate, even faster than the rate trademarks are picked up and dropped. To ensure certain amount of control at the rate at which the domain names are picked up and dropped, the ICANN is monitoring several registries. It has given certain number of its registries to companies that can sell out domain name. Such companies are known as ‘registrars’, and they would usually be working on the . com and . net TLD. However, the ICANN has introduced a 5 day window period, which would allow the registering body to make changes or take back the domain name registration within a period of 5 days. The ICANN can also recommend the owner to make modify or even remove certain domain names registered during the window period. This would ensure that any illegal activities or potentially abuse over the internet can be prevented. At the same time, healthy competition can be encouraged over the internet . Since January 003, there has been a shift in the management of the . org TLD from Verisign to the Public Internet Registry, which is an organisation created in 2002 keeping the public internet in mind . During the mid-1990’s, the US government decided to shift several infrastructure and governance that the US government and the military had over the internet over to private bodies. The government felt that the main reason for implementing such policies were because the industry themselves can specialise in creating effective policies and ensure development and advancement through regulations and policies framed over internet. The US government also tried to install several institutional controls means to ensure that the private bodies that had certain governance over the internet. Several organisations such as the ICANN and the IAHC also felt that the international involvement was very important in developing a domain name policy. However, the US government was also concerned that the internet control may go out of US hands and hence framed certain principles in the form Green Paper and White Paper. The White paper included several characteristics such as dominant coalition, steadiness, competitiveness, private, bottom up coordination, representation, etc. The ICANN brought about a transfer of the DNS control from the US government to the global environment. The entire interest of the community was needed to be represented through the actions of the ICANN, which included organisations, society, communities, etc. The ICANN had a bottom-up approach of governance. Many people feel that the ICANN has made the internet very much suited for public interests and before the ICANN had any control over the internet, it was more of a private domain that was exclusively controlled by the US Federal Government. Many people say the internet developed from resources of the Federal government and the military. However, it is also important to note that neither the federal government nor the military had any role to play in the day to day policy-making, decision-making and management of the internet. The policy making and the management of the internet has developed through interactions between private organisations having certain authorities over the internet. Besides, users and institutions also play a very important role in giving feedback to these organisations. Whatever policies are being developed by the ICANN or Verisign are done considering public benefit. By handing over the internet governance to appropriate authorities, not only are the problems solved regarding usage, content, etc, but day-to-day management issues are also well sorted out . Many people consider that by handing over the internet to private organisations, the US government has not privatised the internet, but has handed over it to the private sector decision-makers that would specialise in framing policies and managing issues with regards to domain names. The NSI was the first private organisation to manage the Domain name registration and allocation. The NSI, ICANN and other such organisation gave a lot of importance to domain name as a unique method of accessing a web site. Hence, today domain name is considered as an important property by several organisations, which would often be using it as a trademark. The issue of cyber-squatting was also prevalent due to the importance given by these organisations over domain name . Many people consider that domain name is private properties. However, considering the oppositions laid by other parties over the specific use of domain names and the implementation of strong registry services, demonstrate that Domain names may not exactly be private property. The ownership of these registries lies with the appropriate organisations, but certain amount of information is available to the public. The ICANN has come out strongly that the information stored in the registry database lies specifically with the owner or applicants, and only the database as a whole is owned by the registration organisation . Property rights and Domain names Property rights help to delimit the extent to which the rights of the individual would apply and the rights of the public would end. Several policies such as endowment, approximation and institutionalisation were applied to ensure proper enforcement of property law. The owner of the property has the right to benefit from his property and reap the fruits. The owner of the IP has to benefit from his right by defending the economic benefits. The owner would be having a certain monopoly with regards to his intellectual property right, but at the same time his ownership cannot be guaranteed, as all intellectual property rights instruments are not perfectly efficient. They would and should ensure certain legitimate use by other parties within certain limits. The owner is left to utilise his intellectual property effectively such that he can exclude others and claim the most economic benefits. In certain cases, there may be certain excesses which would anyway land in the hands of other parties including public and the rivals . In the case of domain names, the IP application seem to be simple and straightforward, but over a period of time a lot of controversies have developed requiring a lot of legal control. Earlier it was even difficult to transfer a domain name used by one individual to another. However, following the implementation of several rules and regulations, it is now possible to transfer the domain registry from one person to another. However, there is still controversy regarding the . com registry agreement between Verisign and the ICANN. Verisign would operate the . com registry and provide registration for . com’s. On the other hand, it would follow the policies laid down by the ICANN, and pay ICANN for its services (of policy-making). Today several registries that carry information and details regarding the registration of domain names do not exactly specify who the owner would be. If such an agreement is missing, then the domain names would be owned by the registries or according to the ICANN it would be owned by the public. If one single organisation owns such a registry, then it would not help to meet the rights of the other parties. For instance, earlier, the NSI only managed the registry of . com’s, and slowly other organisations such as Verisign, ICANN, etc, have been involved. This would ensure greater stability and sustainability. Currently, the registry database has been owned by the organisation that has been merely allocated responsibility. This does not speak legitimately of being the owner of the domain names. Currently, the monopoly of the generic TLD lies with one organisation and the country code TLD rests with certain organisations that the government of the country has allocated to. The ICANN has freely encouraged the transfer and the reassignment of domain name rights from one party to another. The rights are transferred in such a way that they would end up with owners who are in a better position to make effective use of the resources. However, transferability of domain name registries is subjected to certain limitations. Several generic TLD registries and the ICANN have contractual agreements. Either of the parties should be able to transfer the rights to another party with a mutual consent. For example the NSI was taken over by Verisign and so were the registries. However, the person taking over the registry may not always make full benefit of the registry and may not full the responsibilities mentioned. In a dynamic internet environment, there is also the possibility that the new registry owner may not make full use and understand the importance of the contents of the registry. When one company would be buying over the other company, the registry would also play a very important role in the takeover costs. The free transferring of the domain name registries would create an instable domain name registry. In the generic TLD, the registries are monopoly, and hence if the information of the registry is not transferred during ownership transfers, the entire domain would be affected . Any property right instrument should ensure that the owner can exercise his right and also transfer his ownership to other parties freely. However, in the case of registries, as there a lot of problems with regards to stability and continuation of the system, the information of the registry is not a property of the registry organisation, but in the public domain. Domain Name Disputes and Arbitration The sudden explosion over the use of the internet in today’s world has placed domain names in direct conflict with trademarks. The use of a domain name would apply throughout the world, as the internet is accessible throughout the world. On the other hand, the trademark laws of a particular nation would vary with that of another, and hence, there is always a chance that trademark laws and domain name laws are in direct conflict with one another. Domain names would apply to the product and services of a service provider and hence ought to be given the same protection as trademarks . On the other hand, registries that register domain names give the importance of registering on a first-come-first served basis. Oppositions would say domain names contains alphabets and numerals, and hence, qualify to become a trademark. However, no rule is hard and fast. Domain name owners feel that the domain names are not protected under trademark laws as the internet is a global media having no offline limitation. On the other hand, the trademark owners feel that domain names are trademarks and hence are liable to file for dilution, unfair competition, etc . One of the main reasons as to why there is intense disputes with regards to domain names, is due cyber-squatting, in which somebody would register a particular domain name, and later try to sell it to the trademark owner. Domain name registries are accepting registration of domain names on a first-come first-served basis, and hence any person can register a popular trademark as a domain name and later plan to sell to the trademark owner. Often the prices quoted by the cyber-squatters are much more than what is paid of registration. Besides, cyber-squatters can misuse the trademark of the owner, and in turn wrongfully attract customers or tarnish the name of the original trademark owner . In the year 1995, the NSI framed a policy to settle disputes between domain name holders and trademark holders. The NSI is left out of the conflict and does not have the right to suspend the services of the domain name holder. Slowly, the importance of the trademark owners began to be felt. Trademarks owners can extent their services on to the internet, considering that it would be an ideal environment for business purposes. Customers on the other hand may also consider domain names being similar to trademarks for search purposes . One of the means of solving domain name disputes is by adopting the Uniform Dispute Resolution Policy implemented by the ICANN in 1999. This is mainly to solve the disputes that arise between domain name owners and trademark owners. The WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Centre would conduct the UDRP procedures. The process is much faster than the courts, and besides the decisions given is credible and impartial. The fees that are imposed are less than the routine courts . ICANN and UDRP The ICANN UDRP has been implemented for several TLD’s including . net, . com, . org, etc. However, it is not applicable to the country level TLD’s, such as . uk, . in, etc. The dispute resolution policy would occur between the domain name holder and the registering authority, such as country-coded domain registering organisation. The UDRP would set the terms and conditions that would arise in case of conflict arise between the domain name holder and any other party, except the registrar (ICANN). According to the ICANN, certain terms and conditions need to be followed when registering for a domain name. The registrant should ensure that all statements made are true, complete, and the domain name would not violate the rights of others. The domain name so registered would not be done for an illegal cause and would not be used to overcome any law. Any action done for the domain name would be lead to the owner being held responsible. The ICANN can transfer, modify or cancel a domain name registered if the domain name registrant requires so, if the court having a jurisdiction requires that the domain name be changed or cancelled or if a relevant administrative body requires that the domain name be changed or expelled. Depending on the situations, the ICANN would make a request to the domain name holder to perform such changes. The URDP procedure would be conducted before an administrative tribunal. Usually such tribunals would come into action whenever a third party has an issue with a particular domain name and files an application for objection before the ICANN. The three elements of conflicts arise include:- †¢ Domain name similar or confusingly similar to a trademark (and the complainant has filed an objection before the URDP) †¢ The registrant has no interests legally over a particular domain name †¢ Domain names which have been registered and utilised in bad faith Only if these three elements are proved during trial before the administrative tribunal (by the complainant) would the complainant be able to prove that the domain name registrant has registered the domain name in bad faith. During the course of trial, the complainant should be able to prove certain evidences:- †¢ The domain name registrant has primarily registered the domain name to sell, rent or transfer the domain name to the true owner later (who is the current trademark holder). †¢ The domain name registrant has registrant has tried to register the domain name with the sole purpose of selling the domain name later to a competitor of the complainant. †¢ The domain name has been registered to prevent the trademark holder from using the domain name for his usual business. †¢ Domain name has been registered for obstructing the usual trade of the complainant. †¢ The domain name registered has registered the domain name so as to create confusion in the public or to have an association with the original trademark holder and gain commercially. There is every chance that the people would get confused in such a situation and may get attracted to the domain name . The domain name holder however has certain rights over the legitimate claim and use of a domain name. Some of the legitimate interests of the domain name holder include:- †¢ The domain name is being utilised for the honest interests of the domain name holder †¢ The domain name holder has created a separate identity for himself and is known most often by the domain name, even though a separate trademark does not exist. †¢ The domain name has been created for legal and non-commercial interests, meeting up to the fair use clauses. †¢ The domain name has not been created to confuse people with an association to a particular trademark or to tarnish/dilute the image of the original trademark holder . The complainant has the choice of selecting an administrative tribunal from the variety offered for handling that particular case. The ICANN would appoint a panel that would discuss the case and offer its decision based on evidence. The complainant or the respondent can file a single administrative hearing before the panel if multiple disputes are present. The administrative panel has the right to discuss all the cases as one or separate each out, depending up on the policy of the ICANN. The fees for the administrative procedure under the URDP would be paid by the complainant, and in case the complainant requires that the panel be increased from one member to three members, the fees would also increase and would be payable by the complainant and the respondent. The ICANN would not participate in any administrative procedure held in front of the administrative panel, and at the same time cannot be held liable for any decisions given by the panel. In case the complainant is able to prove his/her point, the domain name of the respondent would be cancelled by the administrative panel and would be handed over to the complainant. Once the administrative panel makes a decision, the ICANN would be informed, and the efforts would be made by the organisation to inform the public through the website. In certain cases requiring reasonable secrecy, efforts would be made not to publish such information . If the respondent wishes to seek justice, he can further go to the appropriate court and file his case before, it and the ICANN would not interfere in this matter. The ICANN would within 10 days cancel or transfer the domain name, but in case of a lawsuit, it would wait for then 10 days for the notice and not enable the decision of the administrative tribunal. The ICANN may also not implement the decision of the administrative tribunal in case a fair agreement has reached between the complainant and the respondent regarding the use of the domain name. The ICANN and the URDP cannot be considered as evidence in any case regarding a dispute of a domain name . There may be certain periods of time when a domain name cannot be transferred from one party to another. This may include during an administrative enquiry, ongoing court lawsuit, etc. All policies framed by the ICANN would be made known to the public at least 30 days in advance before the policies are implemented. If the policies of the ICANN are not suitable for a particular domain name, then the domain name holder can cancel his registration and reapply, when the rules are changed . The member who belongs to the administrative panel should provide an impartial and independent decision during the process of discussion. In case certain decisions have to be made in an impartial way, then the provider should be informed of the same. The URDP procedure is an instrument meant to ensure interests of the public and the society along with certain number of private interests. The URDP procedures are primarily arranged to manage cases in which domain names have been registered in bad faith, misappropriation or for a wrongful intention, so as to destroy the good name of the trademark owner. These cases would hence extent to situations in which the domain name are similar or confusingly similar to the trademark owner or have been registered in bad faith. The URDP would be doing case-by-case analysis and would be providing an appropriate decision based on the evidence and the facts

Literature of Colonial America :: essays research papers

The writings of this period are accounts of European explorers, traders, and settlers describing their adventures. Various different things were going on in America at this time, and everyone’s aspect of how things happened is what the writings are about. In order to understand and engulf these pieces of literature, the reader needs to understand how people were living, and what was going on in America. The English- speaking man and the Indians had widely differing cultures that very much clashed and caused upsetting problems. There were also many different people settling in America with a different attitude on religion. Various different things contributed to the thoughts put into words, which make up the works of the Colonial Period literature. Columbus’s Letter Describing His First Voyage is an important piece of writing that is a part of history. It was Columbus’s voyage that had united Europe and America. He discovered so much territory that was unknown to the Europeans, and to have a written account of his journey is an amazing part of history. It is an informing piece of writing to read in order to understand the way Christopher Columbus is known to have discovered the Americas. The published works of Captain John Smith tells us the story of how Jamestown, Virginia was established. John Smith told about his encounters with the Virginia Indians, and also of himself being captured. That is where the myths of John Smith’s tale of Pocahontas came about. It may or may not be true, but maybe that is the fantasy that brings this writing to life. True or untrue, it is a long-lived legend that everyone will hear about during the course of his or her lifetime. To be able to read it allows someone to imagine in their own fantasy the things he is describing in words. It is an enjoyable writing to read, and I believe everyone should read it at least once. There are two women writers from the Colonial Period who have forever imprinted their names in the era of literature: Mary Rowlandson and Anne Bradstreet. Anne Bradstreet, to begin, was the first notable poet in American literature. Her works were published without her consent, and have been studied and critiqued ever since. In her poems she expresses her thoughts on the pleasures of God, life, and especially family. There are two poems of hers that I really enjoyed reading: To My Dear and Loving Husband and In Reference To Her Children.

Male/Female Contrasts Essay Essay

There are many contrasts to male and female friendships. Both sexes share their feelings, thoughts, or even a casual conversation, differently from each other. Some say it’s because of a man’s ego, or a woman’s intuition that their friendships seem to work. Here are some contrasts of both genders friendships. Woman friendships usually seem to be more conversed, as for men it’s the opposite. Woman can talk about anything they want and share the same feelings or thoughts on the topic, but for men it’s a little less conversational. For men they think it’s feminine to talk about their feelings. Men usually refrain from talking to their friends about relationship problems so they typically talk about work related topics, sports, or anything that has to do with a man’s masculinity to show his friend he is dominate. But if men were to find themselves in a conversation they only talk about the things they have in common, which makes the men bond more and most likely to be better friends. Men don’t criticize each other’s opinion. As for women, if a girl sees her friend crying she is more likely to ask her to talk about why is she crying. Woman share common issues so their more likely to help one another. So you can say women are more sympathetic then men. Woman also criticize each other and because they know more information about each other, their more open to sharing personal information. Unlike woman, men participate in a total different activity when their together as oppose to woman. Men rather do more hands on activities such as painting a house, play sports (whether it be on a game console or in a big field), even going to the gym together, and also help another man with a mechanical problem. Like I stated before men try to avoid doing anything that has to do with emotions. Woman on the other hand does activities that don’t get them tired. Things like shopping, or share secrets; they don’t really do anything else but talk. They rather do things that involve finding things out about another person. Women can go out to a cafà © and sit down for hours talking about books or men. Men go into a cafà © order their stuff to go while talking about the hot girl in their work place. So in conclusion there are many contrasts to male and female friendships. Men and women friendships differ because of the way both sexes share their feelings, thoughts, or a casual conversation. Men rather do things that don’t involve talking about emotion but focus on the masculinity and do productive activities. As for woman there more conversed and sympathetic towards their friends and try not to do anything that would tire them out.

Internet Gambling: The Rationale and Reasons Behind Its Existence Essay

The internet has brought a lot of changes in the society today. It makes life much easier to deal with, makes transactions faster and makes communication easier to reach. The internet has contributed to the development of a country. It has contributed to the success of many business establishments. It has brought many high-tech gadgets and applications. However, the internet also brought disadvantages to mankind. It has made so many illegal acts hi-tech as well. Stealing for one is very rampant in the internet. Hacking website information and databases is another. Software piracy increases through time. Time and again, this technology has been both an advantage and a disadvantage to mankind. In the 21st century, the internet has become the an easy tool for disseminating information of all sorts, a means of interaction between individuals and their computers wherever they are located and regardless of their wealth and stature. Businesses slowly emerge through the use of internet for users find it comfortable. One of the most common and old businesses in history is gambling, and with internet, gambling seemed to appear appealing to some internet users. It is known that the first online casino was founded on August 18, 1995 where it had eighteen various casino games, online access to National Indian Lottery and an Internet Sports Book. (Basu, 2006) Internet gambling has had its effects on the society. It increases gambling addiction, gambling by minors, crimes and several threats on sporting contests.   Moreover, cheating is very rampant in online casinos which includes the site owner failed to pay the winners, the site owner failed to return the money paid to them which were never gambled and the site just disappear bringing with them the money from the investors. (Basu, 2006) d.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is of importance that the government and every parent must pay attention to this problem. Not only does it increase crime rate and dishonesty but it also attracts minor internet users. Since internet now is just within reach, most families have acquired it at home which means children, as early as their young age, have access to the internet. With this, everything is possible – even internet gambling. II.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Internet Gambling: The Problem in the 21st Century a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Internet gambling is very prevalent in today’s modern world. As mentioned in the previous item, this illegal activity is no longer restricted to adult internet users but to minors as well. Parents, having the full responsibility over their children, must be able to explain to them how and when the internet is used. Parents must be more attentive now to what the children do. Parents must restrict their children on opening websites which might lead them to knowing internet gambling and other illegal activities done over the web. b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Internet gamblers help to create obsessive gamblers. There are those who have a hard time restricting themselves from playing at a casino. And it is even harder for them to resist stopping playing when it is done online. There are internet gamblers who always say â€Å"I will play one more time, and then I’ll stop†. But this statement has already been abused for it has never applied. On the other hand, internet gambling sites give internet gamblers the opportunity to gamble as much money as they want since comfort of playing is on their side. (Berkovich, 2006) c.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Generally, online gamblers now are younger than those personally gambling at casinos since younger people are more computer savvy than the older ones. In a research done by American Psychological Association in March 2002, it was found out that every one of the 389 respondents had tried gambling at some point in their lives. 90% gambled the previous year, 42% gambled the previous week, 8% gambled online in their lifetime and 4% gambled weekly. In addition, it was found out that the younger respondents were more likely to gamble online compared to the older respondents. Online gamblers’ age average at 31.7 years than 43.5 years for traditional gamblers. (http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/1620/Internet-Gambling-EFFECTS-ONLINE-GAMBLING.html)

Classifying Solutions Essays - Solutions, Equilibrium Chemistry

Classifying Solutions Essays - Solutions, Equilibrium Chemistry Classifying Solutions Types of Solutions Gas Solid/Gas Liquid/Gas Gas Solid Solid/Solid Liquid/Solid Gas Liquid Solid/Liquid Liquid/Liquid Gas Solution-a liquid mixture in which the minor component (the solute) is uniformly distributed within the major component (the solvent) Solvent- A substance that can dissolve another substance, or in which another substance is dissolved into Solute-The minor component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent Aqueous-contains water Alloy-a solid solution or two or more metals Solubility-The maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature Saturated Solution-a solution that cannot dissolve more solute (contains maximum amount of solute at which the solution exists) Unsaturated Solution-a solution that could dissolve more solute (contains less solute than the maximum amount possible is dissolved in the solution) Supersaturated Solution-a solution that contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature Determining the type of solution -Add a seed crystal of solute -Dissolves= unsaturated -Does not dissolve= saturated -Begins to crystallize= supersaturated Solubility Expressed in grams of solute per 100g of solvent Solute Solubility (g solute/100g solvent)Qualitative Solubility description Less than 0.1Insoluble 0.1>1Slightly Soluble 1-10Soluble 10Very soluble e.g. A 3.20g sample of a salt dissolves in 9.10g of water to give a saturated solution at 25*C. What is the solubility (in g salt/100g of water) of the salt? Solute = 3.20gSalt = x _ Solvent 9.10gH2O 100gH2O x=3.20gSalt(100gH2O) 9.10gH2O x=35.2g Factors that Affect Solubility Forces that act between the particle of the substances in solutions: -forces that attract particle of the solute to each other -forces that attracts particle of the solute to particles of the solvent -forces that attract particles of the solvent to each other Solubility in Water -The polar nature of water molecules enables water to dissolve a wide range of solutes -Most ionic compounds are soluble in water 1.Electrical attraction between the polar water molecules and the ions pulls ions from the surface of the solute 2.Polar water molecules surround the separated ions in a process called hydration, and ions disperse uniformly in solution Polar compounds dissolve in water Nonpolar compounds dont dissolve in water Nonpolar compounds can dissolve in nonpolar solvents Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions Solutions of ionic compounds can conduct electricity. Temperature and Solubility (Solid in Liquid) For most ionic solids, solubility increases as temp increases. Temperature and Solubility(Liquid in Liquid, Gas in Gas) Temperature change has little effect on the solubility of one liquid in another one or one gas in another Temperature and Solubility(Gas in Liquid) The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases as the temperature increases Pressure and Solubility(Gas in Liquid) The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directionally proportional to the pressure of that same particular gas above the liquid Factors that Affect Rate of Dissolving -agitation or mixing(stirring) -temperature increases -increased surface area of the solute Concentrations of Solutions as a % Concentration-the ratio of the quantity of solvent or the quantity of solution Concentrated-having a high ratio of solute to a solution Dilute-having a low ratio of solute to solution % (Mass/Volume) -a ratio of the mass of solute to the volume of solution, expressed as a percent %(m/v)=m of solute (g) x100% v of solution (mL) % (Mass/Mass) -a ratio of mass of solute to mass of solution, expressed as a percent %(m/m)=m of solute (g) x100% m of solution (g) % (Volume/Volume) -a ratio of the volume of solute to the volume of solution, expressed as a percent %(v/v)= v of solute (mL) x100% v of solution (mL) ex.(m/v but applies to all % questions) g:msolute=17.5g msolvent=350mL r: %(m/v)= ? a: %(m/v)=msolute x100% msolvent m: =17.5g x100% 350mL =5.00% [3 sig digs] Very Small Concentrations of Solutions Parts per million (ppm) -a ratio of solute to solution x106 ppm=m of solute (g) x106 m of solution (g) Parts per billion (ppb) -a ratio of solute to solution x109 ppb=m of solute (g) x109 m of solution (g) ex.(ppm but same steps for ppb) g:mNaF=32.2mg=3.22x10-2g mH2O=20.0kg=2.00x104g r: ppm(m/m)= ? a: ppm(m/m)=mass of solute x106 mass of solution m: ppm(m/m)=3.22x10-2g x106 2.00x104g+3.22x10-2g =1.61ppm(m/m) Molar Concentrations -the amount in moles of solute dissolved in 1L of solution equation: C= n/V ex. Molar concentration g:c=0.154mol/L V=500mL=0.500L r:n=? m=? a:n=cV m:n=0.154mol/L(0.500L) =0.077mol m=Mn =(22.989770g/mol)(0.077mol) =1.77g ex. Molar concentration of ions g:n=0.212molFeCl3 V=0.175mL r:c=? a:c=n/v m:c=0.212molFeCl3/0.175mL =1.21mol/L Determining Solubility Effect of Ion Charge -compounds of ions with small charges tend to be soluble -compounds of ions with large charges tend to be insoluble -why? Increasing ion charge increases the attractive forces that hold the ions together Effect of Ion Size -the size of an atom is different than the size of its corresponding ion -in general, metallic ions tend to be smaller than their corresponding neutral atoms; non-metallic ions tend to be larger than their corresponding neutral atoms -small ions bond more closely

Free Essays on Narssist

Narcissist personality disorder or npd can be found in everyone. It protect the ego from severe damage inflicted by others. NPD occurs when narcissistic traits become exaggerated in an individual’s personality. Psychiatrist believe that unmet basic childhood needs is the cause of npd. One theory suggest that during the first eighteen months of life the infant experiences being the center of his mothers world and a oneness with the mother developes. This make the child feel powerful and omnipotent. If a mother is non-responsive and insensitive to the child’s needs during the first eighteen months of life npd will develop. Other theories suggest that during the first seven years of life the amount of abuse or trauma, not necessarily caused by their parents can cause npd. Although there are several charateristics of npd a pattern of grandiosity, excessive need for admiration, entitlement, and lack of empathy are the chief components of diagnosing npd. A narcissistic person is grandiose in their sense of self importance and exaggerates their achievements and talents. He expects to be recognized as superior without achieving any great accomplishments. He requires excessive admiration and constantly seeks it. Narcissistic person has a sense of entitlement and expect others to automatically comply with his wishes. He lacks empathy and does not identify with the feelings or needse of others. Narcissists are constantly searching for a narcissistic supply. This supply is what nourishes the narcissist and they will take it from whatever source is at hand. They want someone inferior, gullible and most importantly not demanding. There are two sources of supply, primary and secondary. The primary source is derived from their profected notoriety and fame, the illusion of mystery they weave around theirself, sex which they perceive as demonstrating their virility, the projection of their wealth, their closeness to power ( mone... Free Essays on Narssist Free Essays on Narssist Narcissist personality disorder or npd can be found in everyone. It protect the ego from severe damage inflicted by others. NPD occurs when narcissistic traits become exaggerated in an individual’s personality. Psychiatrist believe that unmet basic childhood needs is the cause of npd. One theory suggest that during the first eighteen months of life the infant experiences being the center of his mothers world and a oneness with the mother developes. This make the child feel powerful and omnipotent. If a mother is non-responsive and insensitive to the child’s needs during the first eighteen months of life npd will develop. Other theories suggest that during the first seven years of life the amount of abuse or trauma, not necessarily caused by their parents can cause npd. Although there are several charateristics of npd a pattern of grandiosity, excessive need for admiration, entitlement, and lack of empathy are the chief components of diagnosing npd. A narcissistic person is grandiose in their sense of self importance and exaggerates their achievements and talents. He expects to be recognized as superior without achieving any great accomplishments. He requires excessive admiration and constantly seeks it. Narcissistic person has a sense of entitlement and expect others to automatically comply with his wishes. He lacks empathy and does not identify with the feelings or needse of others. Narcissists are constantly searching for a narcissistic supply. This supply is what nourishes the narcissist and they will take it from whatever source is at hand. They want someone inferior, gullible and most importantly not demanding. There are two sources of supply, primary and secondary. The primary source is derived from their profected notoriety and fame, the illusion of mystery they weave around theirself, sex which they perceive as demonstrating their virility, the projection of their wealth, their closeness to power ( mone...

The Practice of Loving Kindness or Metta Defined

The Practice of Loving Kindness or Metta Defined Loving kindness is defined in English dictionaries as a feeling of benevolent affection. But in Buddhism, loving kindness (in Pali, Metta; in Sanskrit, Maitri) is thought of as a mental state or attitude, cultivated and maintained by practice. This cultivation of loving kindness is an essential part of Buddhism. The Theravadin scholar Acharya Buddharakkhita said of Metta, The Pali word metta is a multi-significant term meaning loving-kindness, friendliness, goodwill, benevolence, fellowship, amity, concord, inoffensiveness and non-violence. The Pali commentators define metta as the strong wish for the welfare and happiness of others (parahita-parasukha-kamana). ... True metta is devoid of self-interest. It evokes within a warm-hearted feeling of fellowship, sympathy and love, which grows boundless with practice and overcomes all social, religious, racial, political and economic barriers. Metta is indeed a universal, unselfish and all-embracing love. Metta often is paired with Karuna, compassion. They are not exactly the same, although the difference is subtle. The classic explanation is that Metta is a wish for all beings to be happy, and Karuna is a wish for all beings to be free from suffering. Wish is probably not the right word, though, because wishing seems passive. It might be more accurate to say directing ones attention or concern to the happiness or suffering of others. Developing loving kindness is essential to doing away with the self-clinging that binds us to suffering (dukkha). Metta is the antidote to selfishness, anger, and fear. Dont Be Nice One of the biggest misunderstandings people have about Buddhists is that Buddhists are always supposed to be nice. But, usually, niceness is only a social convention. Being nice often is about self-preservation and maintaining a sense of belonging in a group. We are nice because we want people to like us, or at least not get angry with us. Theres nothing wrong with being nice, most of the time, but its not the same thing as loving kindness. Remember, Metta is concerned with the genuine happiness of others. Sometimes when people are behaving badly, the last thing they need for their own happiness is someone politely enabling their destructive behavior. Sometimes people need to be told things they dont want to hear; sometimes they need to be shown that what they are doing is not okay. Cultivating Metta His Holiness the Dalai Lama is supposed to have said, This is my simple religion. There is no need for temples; no need for complicated philosophy. Our own brain, our own heart is our temple. The philosophy is kindness. Thats great, but remember that were talking about a guy who gets up at 3:30 a.m. to make time for meditation and prayers before breakfast. Simple isnt necessarily easy. Sometimes people new to Buddhism will hear about loving kindness, and think, No sweat. I can do that. And they wrap themselves in the persona of a lovingly kind person and go about being very, very nice. This lasts until the first encounter with a rude driver or surly store clerk. As long as your practice is about you being a nice person, you are just play-acting. This may seem paradoxical, but unselfishness begins by gaining insight into yourself and understanding the source of your ill will, irritations, and insensitivity. This takes us to the basics of Buddhist practice, beginning with the Four Noble Truths and the practice of the Eightfold Path. Metta Meditation The Buddhas best-known teaching on Metta is in the Metta Sutta, a sermon in the Sutta Pitaka. Scholars say the sutta (or sutra) presents three ways to practice Metta. The first is applying Metta to day-to-day conduct. The second is Metta meditation. The third is a commitment to embody Metta with full body and mind. The third practice grows from the first two. The several schools of Buddhism have developed several approaches to Metta meditation, often involving visualization or recitation. A common practice is to begin by offering Metta to oneself. Then (over a period of time) Metta is offered to someone in trouble. Then to a loved one, and so on, progressing to someone you dont know well, to someone you dislike, and eventually to all beings. Why begin with yourself? Buddhist teacher Sharon Salzberg said, To reteach a thing its loveliness is the nature of Metta. Through loving kindness, everyone and everything can flower again from within. Because so many of us struggle with doubts and self-loathing, we must not leave ourselves out. Flower from within, for yourself and for everyone.

My philosophy of pedagogy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

My philosophy of pedagogy - Essay Example When I came to USA, the first thing I wanted to learn was driving. I did not know driving because in Saudi Arabia, women are denied the right to drive. So I was very excited to learn how to drive. I received the training from my husband, Anees. Anees started from the basics because I was the beginner. I learned the functions of different tools and parts of the car. In the beginning, Anees would take me to lonely paths so that I would not be distracted by traffic and would be able to fully concentrate upon driving. Besides, this also allowed me escape possible accidents. Anees taught me the use of gears and break. I learned the meaning of the letter on each gear. Letter D means drive, letter P means parking, letter N means nothing, and the letter R means turn back. Once he thought I had gained sufficient control over the car, Anees took me to the roadside and told me the significance of traffic signals. I found it all a bit confusing in the beginning, but the anxiety receded as I prac ticed more. Â  The hardest part was driving on the highway. Cars rushing past me freaked me out. I was not very used to fast driving. But once I made it to my destination, it inculcated a feeling of confidence in me. I kept driving ever since and today, I have my own driving license and can dive independently. I am very grateful to my husband for his sincere help. Â  I always believed that I could be a very good teacher. I polished my husband’s creative writing skills. First, I taught him how to write.... Once he thought I had gained sufficient control over the car, Anees took me to the roadside and told me the significance of traffic signals. I found it all a bit confusing in the beginning, but the anxiety receded as I practiced more. The hardest part was driving on the highway. Cars rushing past me freaked me out. I was not very used to fast driving. But once I made it to my destination, it inculcated a feeling of confidence in me. I kept driving ever since and today, I have my own driving license and can dive independently. I am very grateful to my husband for his sincere help. I always believed that I could be a very good teacher. I polished my husband’s creative writing skills. I secured my Bachelor degree in English language from the Spring International Language Center. I was senior to my husband, and my essay writing skills were far better than his. Owing to the fact that men in our country are weak in expressing their emotions, my husband found it difficult to write a good essay. Therefore, I resolved to assist him with essay writing. I started with the basics. First, I taught him how to write an introduction in the American style. I told him that he ought to begin with a hook. I told him that it is important to write a hook to gain the attention of readers. Then, I told him to write a thesis statement to give the readers a fair idea of the content of the body of the essay. I told him that the body of an essay elaborates on what has been said in the thesis statement. Writing the topic sentence for each new paragraph was a bit confusing for Anees, but he started to develop better topic sentences as he practiced more. I suggested Anees to use different kinds of

Project Management in IT sector Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words - 1

Project Management in IT sector - Essay Example In summary, I would like to thank all of the people who helped me during the course of my project. It’s very hard to find suitable words to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor, Mr. Daniel Talbort, who gave me a tremendous amount of support and valuable personal direction in the progress of my project. This motivation and advice given at various levels has enabled me to pursue the successful closure of my project. Finally I would also like to thank all my friends and colleagues at Coventry University, who provided me libraries, books, and inspiration, as well as being a significant part behind the success of this project. Kulwinder Kaur ABSTRACT This dissertation is a study of the role of project management in the field of Information Technology. The research analyses the planning and control techniques used by project management teams in enterprise software development. RESEARCH METHODS Project management is a major element of the Information Technology industry interna tionally, with innumerable books, articles and journals articles published on the subject from various authors. The main area covered in this report is Project Management in enterprise software development. Various methods are used in order to build the research and gather conclusions about the research. A variety of sources, including the internet, books, and reference journals, were used to gather information about the topic. Lectures given in the class gave us the critical methodologies and research approaches required to complete this report effectively. Further personal instruction given by the project supervisor, Mr. Daniel Talbot allowed this to happen more easily. The various methods used in order to complete this research included: Library Books Articles available from online sources Data from friends and colleagues Internet Journals Project supervisor guidelines All the above mentioned sources were key ingredients to the research methodology and therefore played a great ro le in the completion of this project. Introduction Over last few decades, there has been an increase in the speed of development of enterprise software products, as well as an increasing demand in business management for quicker and more efficient means to develop software products for market. Product development in any field or business sector requires strong management and organization in order to be successful, and project management represents the collected tradition of these strategies of team organization in software programming. Project Management allows companies to build plans for software products and to have full control over the team organization of the projects. Project Management also helps in the allocation and proper utilization of resources in the enterprise software development process. (Mantel 2010) An enterprise software development project typically follows the four main stages of organization:

LOG 501 MoD 5 TD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

LOG 501 MoD 5 TD - Essay Example ronic communication and stringent labeling to prevent packages from getting lost during shipment, not forgetting the need to only use reliable carriers, in the end this will improve productivity, save money and protect the shipments. 2. Another measure to increase productivity at the EBBD would be to increase labor productivity. This can be calculated as the output per worker per hour in a given economy. Labour productivity is equal to the ratio between a volume measure of output (gross domestic product or gross value added) and a measure of input use (the total number of hours worked or total employment) labor productivity = volume measure of output / measure of input use The total number of employed people cannot be used to indicate productivity. To increase total productivity it would mean increasing the productivity of each individual labor unit. This is by increasing the skill of each labor unit operating within the EBBD by increasing the skill and professionalism of each unit. Ultimately this increases the total output of each individual by using less time for each output, this increases overall output of the

Passive movements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Passive movements - Essay Example To optimise the benefits from the passive movements and passive therapeutic exercises, more experimental evidence needs to be gathered in order to better understand things like specific tissue effects and physiological mechanims of action involved (Frank et al. 1987). A clinical approach utilizing skilled, specific hands-on techniques, including but not limited to manipulation and mobilization, used by the physical therapist to diagnose and treat soft tissues and joint structures for the purpose of modulating pain; increasing range of motion (ROM); reducing or eliminating soft tissue inflammation; inducing relaxation; improving contractile and non-contractile tissue repair, extensibility, and/or stability; facilitating movement; and improving function (AAOMPT, 1999). Some recent research has demonstrated significantly better outcomes for patients who used manual therapy in conjunction with other forms of therapy, such as exercise and proprioception training, than when manual therapy was used alone (Jull et al. 2002). Within manual therapy, the administration of passive movements is generally denoted by the term "mobilization". The APTA (American Physical Therapy Association), and the AAOMPT (American Academy of Orthopedic Manual Physical Therapy) define mobilization as a manual therapy technique comprised of a continuum of skilled passive movements to joints and/or related soft tissues that are applied at varying speeds and amplitudes, including a small amplitude/high velocity therapeutic movement (Olson, 2004). In this essay, we are specifically concerned with joint mobilization, which differs from soft-tissue mobilization (massage therapy) or manipulation (chiropractic). We shall be discussing the specific physiological pathways underlying the manifest effects of passive movements. We shall begin, though, by better familiarizing ourselves with the nature and scope of passive movements as they are employed in a clinical setting. Neurophysiological Response to Joint Mobilization Physiotherapy aims to bring about musculoskeletal rehabilitation. To this end, PT prominently involves the use of a combination of exercise and manual therapy techniques. Joint mobilization is a manual therapy procedure involving loosening up of the restricted joints and increasing their range of motion by providing slow velocity and increasing amplitude movement directly into the barrier of a joint, moving the actual bone surfaces on each other in ways which individuals with compromised musculoskeletal function cannot move by themselves. By subjecting motion-restricted joints to gentle movement through a particular segment of the full range, joint receptors can be by and by reeducated to allow a range of motion. Such release from stiffness happens with a concomitant relief from pain in most cases. Administation of passive movements to an affected joint can lead to restoration of the optimal length of muscle fibres, besides resulting in the reduction of the pain-spasm cycle (American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 1991). A joint can primarily move in two ways: a) in physiological movements consisting of extension, flexion,

Human Growth and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human Growth and Development - Essay Example In addition, the summary describes the development of the infant’s senses, trends of sleep, weight, and height increase patterns. The summary to chapter six highlights the development of cognition in infants and factors that affect the infant’s cognitive processes. In addition, under cognitive development, the paper describes the development of language. Finally, the paper summarizes chapter seven of the book that deals with psychosocial development. Under this section, a description of infant emotions is available. Development Processes in Infants In her book The Developing Person through the Lifespan, Berger describes the main changes that take place in an individual’s life, especially during infancy. Each of the chapters in the book reveals the growth processes in different aspects. This paper will highlight the man ideas brought out in chapters 5, 6, and 7. These chapters discuss the different levels of growth that occur in infants in the first two years of t heir life. Infant is a Latin-derived word that refers to any child who does not speak. During infancy, multiple growth processes take place rapidly. Chapter 5 of the book describes the biosocial development of infants. At birth, babies are only 3 kilograms and 20 inches. In the first five months of the baby’s life, the weight doubles. ... As long as the infant receives sufficient nutrition, the body and brain keep growing. Percentile ranks used by clinicians help track the baby’s growth in comparison to the norm (Berger, 2011). Sleep is a crucial aspect of infants with newborns requiring about seventeen hours a day. As they grow, they take up family sleep patterns. A great percentage of infants at one year manage to sleep the entire night. Factors such as diet, birth order, brain maturation, and child rearing practices affect sleeping cycles. On the other hand, infant’s brain reaches 75% of its potential mature weight. Neuron development takes place vigorously in some parts of the brain especially those dealing with vision, smell, language, and emotional processing. Different parts of the cortex advance in growth taking up different responsibilities. Studies reveal that multiple neural dendrites emerge in infancy. In addition, pruning helps the brain function faster. The rate at which the brain develops depends on experiences surrounding the infant (Berger, 2011). Formation of new neurons implies healthy growth. Abuse and neglect slow the formation of neurons and may hinder brain development. The chapter also highlights the functioning of senses in infants. The five senses (vision, taste, touch, hearing, and smell) exhibit function since birth. However, hearing is the sharpest sense at birth while a binocular capability of the eyes in infants is achieved in 14 weeks. With time, infants acquire motor skills. The chapter highlights the cephalocaudal and proximal-distal nature of growth. Growth begins with the head downwards and extends from the torso’s center to the arms and legs. An infant’s motor skills develop slowly with muscle movements advancing from one to the other.

Passive movements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Passive movements - Essay Example To optimise the benefits from the passive movements and passive therapeutic exercises, more experimental evidence needs to be gathered in order to better understand things like specific tissue effects and physiological mechanims of action involved (Frank et al. 1987). A clinical approach utilizing skilled, specific hands-on techniques, including but not limited to manipulation and mobilization, used by the physical therapist to diagnose and treat soft tissues and joint structures for the purpose of modulating pain; increasing range of motion (ROM); reducing or eliminating soft tissue inflammation; inducing relaxation; improving contractile and non-contractile tissue repair, extensibility, and/or stability; facilitating movement; and improving function (AAOMPT, 1999). Some recent research has demonstrated significantly better outcomes for patients who used manual therapy in conjunction with other forms of therapy, such as exercise and proprioception training, than when manual therapy was used alone (Jull et al. 2002). Within manual therapy, the administration of passive movements is generally denoted by the term "mobilization". The APTA (American Physical Therapy Association), and the AAOMPT (American Academy of Orthopedic Manual Physical Therapy) define mobilization as a manual therapy technique comprised of a continuum of skilled passive movements to joints and/or related soft tissues that are applied at varying speeds and amplitudes, including a small amplitude/high velocity therapeutic movement (Olson, 2004). In this essay, we are specifically concerned with joint mobilization, which differs from soft-tissue mobilization (massage therapy) or manipulation (chiropractic). We shall be discussing the specific physiological pathways underlying the manifest effects of passive movements. We shall begin, though, by better familiarizing ourselves with the nature and scope of passive movements as they are employed in a clinical setting. Neurophysiological Response to Joint Mobilization Physiotherapy aims to bring about musculoskeletal rehabilitation. To this end, PT prominently involves the use of a combination of exercise and manual therapy techniques. Joint mobilization is a manual therapy procedure involving loosening up of the restricted joints and increasing their range of motion by providing slow velocity and increasing amplitude movement directly into the barrier of a joint, moving the actual bone surfaces on each other in ways which individuals with compromised musculoskeletal function cannot move by themselves. By subjecting motion-restricted joints to gentle movement through a particular segment of the full range, joint receptors can be by and by reeducated to allow a range of motion. Such release from stiffness happens with a concomitant relief from pain in most cases. Administation of passive movements to an affected joint can lead to restoration of the optimal length of muscle fibres, besides resulting in the reduction of the pain-spasm cycle (American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 1991). A joint can primarily move in two ways: a) in physiological movements consisting of extension, flexion,

Designing Compensation Systems and Employee Benefits Research Paper

Designing Compensation Systems and Employee Benefits - Research Paper Example Therefore, job evaluation attempts to document the shared and general characteristics of a job. Hence, in a job of driving a car, job evaluation would be attempting to determine the proficiency of the driver in driving the car or how well the person is aware of the roads. Job evaluation thus determines how well a person is handling each of the constituent tasks of the job. Employees receive compensation from companies for their work, however there’s a difference between compensation and pay. Compensation basically includes all types of financial rewards and tangible services which the company provides to the employees. For making the compensation internally consistent, the employees must be convinced that the jobs are being paid for by the employer according to its worth. There are certain jobs within the company which have more scope for contributing to the overall welfare of the company than other jobs. Hence such jobs are the ones which receive a higher pay. For example, in a hospital, the nurses are the ones who contribute greatly to the care of patients; hence the nurses are paid more than the orderlies. Determining the value of each and every job in an organization is very important since it assists in making the pay rates of an organization internally consistent. This value determination of jobs is called job evaluation. Some criteria used for job evaluation include the effort required to perform a job and the difficulty of a particular job. Compensations should also be developed which are market competitive. If for example the pay is low compared to the market, the company would encounter turnover and recruitment problems. If the pay is higher than the market, the company would potentially experience problems with the budget which may result in layoffs. The companies which pay above the market are termed as market leaders while the companies paying below the market rates are

Discuss Shakespeares dramatic technique in Act one scenes 1 to 7 Essay Example for Free

Discuss Shakespeares dramatic technique in Act one scenes 1 to 7 Essay The chief character of the play is Macbeth. He is first of all Thane of Glamis and then inherits the title thane of Cawdor from an executed traitor. Instigated by a prophecy from the Witches that he will become king, and urged on by his wife, he murders King Duncan, and has himself proclaimed king. To secure his position, he is driven to commit further criminal acts, and plunges his country into civil war. After he is killed in battle by Macduff he is described as a dead butcher. The first scene is set on the moor that is bleak and desolate. This scene is one of desolation and devastation. The desolate countryside metaphorically separates the humans from the Witches who are used to open the play to introduce the idea of fate and destiny. From the stage directions, the battlefield creates a scene of death, carnage and destruction in line 4, when the battles lost and won and line 12 and 13, fair is foul and foul is fair a paradox is offered. How can fair be foul? How a battle be lost and won? The Witches chant in rhyming couplets and their speech is deliberately equivocal to create confusion in the mortals, as it is open t interpretation. He rhyming couplets give the effect of an incantation, while the thunder and lightning echo the noise of the battle. Similarly strange is thepaaradox that closes the scene: contained within it is the oxymoron, fair is foul, and foul is fair, a paradoxical idea that the Witches are able to transform what is good into evil, and make what is evil appear virtuous. These are also the first words spoken in the play by Macbeth, the echo establishes an unconscious contact with the Witches and is dramatically effective. We discover that the Witches are on the moor to meet with Macbeth. They seem to know where Macbeth will be. Once again they show that they can foretell the future. What can Macbeth the plays eponymous hero have to do with these abnormal, weird woman who look not like thinhabitants of earth? How does he fit into their plans? The opening scene heightens the audiences expectations, as Macbeth will soon appear on stage, the audience will try and establish exactly why the Witches hope t meet him. Witches held great significance for a Jacobean audience who believed in witchcraft. Witches were the objects of morbid and fevered fascination during this era. The Jacobeans were afraid and superstitious. They suspected that the Witches were credited with powers and could predict the future, fly, cause fogs and tempests, bring on night in daytime, kill animals and curse people, with fatal diseases as well as induce nightmares. By the use of this technique, Shakespeare knew that he would get his audiences attention with the opening scene. Although brief, this scene sets the supernatural atmosphere of the play, which is central to its dramatic action. In scene two, Shakespeare cleverly moves the scene to establish a different mood when introducing the humans. The seething battlefield replaces the moor, foul thunder is replaced by the sound of the military alarum and the humans replace the Witches. In this scene we meet Duncan, the King of Scotland, and his sons, Donalbain and Malcolm. Duncans supremacy is instantly established for he is the first to speak. They receive a report of the battle fought against the King of Norway and Macdonwald, the thane of Cawdor who has proved disloyal to Duncan. From the report he audience learns about the heroism and bravery of one of the King Duncans generals, Macbeth. Shakespeare continues to build suspense as he introduces the humans. The audience are also introduced to evil in man and the evil in warfare. The playwrights use of language helps to bring the battle to life and emphasises Macbeths importance. Dynamic verbs like, smokd, brandishd and unseamd suggest Macbeths skills and courage as his sword smokd with bloody execution. Once again we hear about Macbeth before we see him. Hw=e is spoken of in glowing terms and he becomes a hero in the eyes of the audience. Though he is referred to as a worthy gentlemen, there is still the memory that his name is connected with the Witches. Brave Macbeth kills Macdonwald by carving out his passage till he unseemd him from the nave to the chops with his brandishd steel that smokd with bloody execution. Part of this description highlights Macbeths bravery and valour, but the captains description of Macbeths unseeming of Macdonwald can be interpreted in different ways. Shakespeare intentionally paints an ambiguous picture of Macbeth. Macbeth, however, is still not satisfied until he had fixd [Macdonwalds] head upon the battlements. The decapitation of Macdonwald would support a more negative reading of Macbeth as oppose to his courageous behaviour. Scene two concludes with an ironic note as Macbeth is rewarded with the title of Thane of Cawdor which has been taken from that most disloyal traitor and given to Macbeth, who will prove to be more treacherous: No more than Thane of Cawdor shall deceive, Our bosom interest. Go pronounce his death, And with his former title greet Macbeth. The audience will realise that to make Macbeth Thane of Cawdor is a great mistake. We see Macbeth, the loyal subject and great hero who fought for good, change and become corrupt, and gradually deteriorate into a vicious tyrant. At the start of scene three, we meet the Witches once again in foul weather and we begin to witness their spiteful destructive nature. One sister has been killing swine while another has possession of a pilots thumb. The other Witch punishes a sailors wife by conjuring up a storm, therefore getting at her husband. From this the audience learns that the powers the Witches carry are limited. They cannot kill, but are able to create a climate for evil to flourish. Though his bark cannot be lost Yet it shall be tempest-tossd. The Witches curse on the sailor can be read as a prediction of Macbeths future. We are shown that the Witches are determined to make people suffer. They torment the sailor and drain him dry as hay. They deny him sleep at night and in the day. They ensure that he shall live a man forbid. However, Macbeth can be destroyed because the forces of veil are present within him. He alone causes chaos in the world by destroying the natural order when he deliberately choose the path of evil. The ship is a metaphor for the state of Scotland which is going to tempest tossd when Macbeth becomes king. A drum beats and Macbeth makes an entrance. We finally meet him and it is significant that his first appearance is with the Witches on the moor. This represents his connection with evil. His paradoxical word So foul and fair a day I have not seen arrests us because it replicates those of the Witches. This once again draws inferences between Macbeth and evil. This could suggest that the Witches have control over Macbeth, or that the hags are in some way similar to him. The appearance of the Witches like their speeches is equivocal. It is Banquo, who is used now as a dramatic device, who first comments on the bizarre appearance of the Witches. They look not like thinhabitants oth earth, and yet are ont and they appear to be women though they have beards. Banquo is calm and is looking for a reasonable explanation to why the Witches are on the moor, whilst Macbeth is impatient and wants an immediate answer to why the Witches have come with such prophetic greetings. The Witches prophesise that Macbeth, Thane of Glamis will become Thane of Cawdor and king hereafter, and that Banquo will have kings. Part of the prophecy is immediately fulfilled when a messenger announces that Duncan, King of Scotland has promoted Macbeth Thane of Cawdor. We the audience realise, that from the previous scene, Macbeth with his courage and bravery, and not the Witches powers, has won him the title Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is rapt withal and becomes lost in his thoughts, as the Witches have articulated his secret desire of killing the King. His mind has been corrupted and he wants glory for himself. Shakespeare shows how evil can control what is good in Macbeth. Macbeth is torn between the forces of good and evil and he believes that he cannot be king unless evil wins over good. Macbeth reveals a disturbed mind, when he speaks his own thoughts aloud in a soliloquy, as murder is in his mind. His first thought is to leave everything to chance: If chance will have me king, why chance may crown me, Without my stir Macbeth has asked Ross and Angus, the messengers, why they dress [him] in borrowd robes- why they call him by the name of Cawdor, when Cawdor lives. By the end of the scene Macbeth is contemplating borrowing the kings robes. The reference to clothing in this scene is symbolic. The imagery of clothing indicates status, prestige and symbolises a persons title. By using the imagery of clothing, Shakespeare is trying to show that if you wear someone elses clothes they may feel uncomfortable and they may cleave not to their mould because they are borrowd. Therefore if Macbeth wears the robes of the kingship they will cleave not to [his] mould as he is not worthy of the kings throne. When the Witches depart in this scene, Macbeth orders them to, Stay, you imperfect speakers tell me more. Macbeths curiosity has got the better of him and his demand of the Witches indicates his obsessive interest with these weird women and their prophecies. The Witches vanish into the air as they do not receive orders from mortals and will not be dictated to. The source and purpose of their evil remains a mystery to the audience. Shakespeare metaphorically compares the disappearance of the Witches to bubbles. Macbeths life can also be represented as a bubble, as the honour, love, obedience and troops of old friends that he has will soon disappear under the wishes they had stayd. Ross and Angus enter, they are used as dramatic devices to convey to Macbeth the Kings decision to reward Macbeth with the title Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth and Banquo are both shocked as the devil has spoken the truth. Macbeth is already snared by the Witches prophecies, as he believes that, The greatest is behind On the other hand, Banquo can see through the trickery of the Witches. He is sceptical and can see through Macbeths motives in asking him whether he hopes his heirs will become kings. Banquo tries to warm Macbeth against the instruments of darkness. He tries to convince Macbeth that the Witches tell simple truths that are easy to believe, so that when they want to deceive people with more important matters they will also be believed. And often times, to win us to our harm, The instruments of darkness tell us truths, Win us with honest trifles, to betrays In deepest consequence. Banquo is portrayed b by Shakespeare in a positive light, as he does not make him an accomplice in Duncans murder. The stage directions show that Macbeth turns aside. This informs the audience that he is talking to himself. This symbolises Macbeth turning away from the other characters in the play as well as the path to righteousness. Shakespeare uses dramatic language to emphasise Macbeths horror. His seated heart knock at his ribs and his hair is unfixed. The scene concludes with Macbeth and Banquo following Ross and Angus to meet the king. The audience are filled with a sense of apprehension and anticipation. One question remains: how will Macbeth get the crown? Scene four opens with a focus on treachery and betrayal. King Duncan hears his son, Malcolm, relate how the treacherous Cawdor has been executed. Also in this scene Duncan reveals his lack of knowledge regarding his own thanes. He exposes a very human weakness-one which lies at the heart of the play- the difficulty of working out who is loyal and who is pretyending loyalty: Theres no art to find the Minds construction in the face. It seems likely that there is an implicit criticism of Duncan here: a good King should be able to assess the loyalty of all his servants. Duncans failure to do so reveals his limitation as a monarch- one who is taken in by appearances. Dramatic irony is introduced where Duncan announces that Cawdor was a Kinsman in whom he had absolute trust. Macbeths betrayal will replicate that of Cawdors. When Macbeth and Banquo enter, Duncan immediately singles out Macbth for praise, oworthiest cousin. The superlative worthiest subtly reveals that Macbeth is yet another thane in whom Duncan has absolute trust. Macbeth is the most dangerous of the potential traitors because he is closest to the king. Scene four is the only time we see Macbeth and Duncan together and Shakespeare contrasts the forces of good and evil. Macbeths deceit and hypocrisy is shown in this scene when he praises King Duncan and promises to honour him with loyalty. He convinces Duncan that servicing your highness will be its own reward. Macbeth is a hypocrite because in the previous scene he has contemplated the murder of Duncan. Duncan ironically comments that he has started to metaphorically plant Macbeth, meaning that he will make sure that Macbeth grows greater and stronger as a reward for his services. This is ironic because what is growing in Macbeth is the seed of ambition to be King himself. Shakespeare deliberately plants an obstacle in Macbeths path when Duncan announces that his eldest son, Malcolm, is to succeed him as king. Macbeth now sees Malcolm as an obstacle between himself and the throne which he must fall down or else oer leap. Shakespeare uses the euphemism that Malcolm is a step he must oer leap, in order to disguise the realisation that Malcolm must be eradicated. In an aside, symbolically turning his back on the King, Macbeth reveals to the audience, and articulates for the first time his black and deep desires. He invokes the powers of darkness to hide [their] fires. At the beginning of scene five, we see that Macbeth and his dearest partner of greatness, Lady Macbeth, have a very close relationship. This is a contrast to how distant they become later on in the play when Macbeths fiend-like queen is innocent of the knowledge. She is innocent of the knowledge as Macbeth does not confide about his plans to kill Banquo, and she shows ignorance of Macbeths murder of Macduffs family. She asks in her rambling state where the Thane of Fifes wife is now. Macbeths lack of sorrow when he hears of his wifes death is also indicative of how they have drifted apart. In all the public scenes in the play she acts like the innocent flower; in the private scenes we see the serpent undert. It is suggested that she commits suicide as she has become lonely and rather isolated. Lady Macbeth does not live up to the expectation of a typical Jacobean/Elizabethan woman. She wants the spirits the spirits to unsex her so that she can be tough and strong. Lady Macbeth uses strong imperatives and determined language that is brutal and violent. This is because she is delighted with her husbands letter and shows determination that he will become king. The letter form Macbeth describes the Witches appearances, their prophecies-in particular that which promises the throne to Macbeth- but does not mention King Duncans announcement of his heir; the audience can therefore, assume that this letter was written immediately after the events which occur in the third scene. Although Lady Macbeth knows that her husband is ambitious, she is aware that he is too full othe milk of human kindness. She says that ruthlessness is an illness that Macbeth does not have. This is not a true portrayal of Macbeth, because from the previous scenes and throughout the play we see that Macbeth is not too full othe milk of human kindness but lacks it. Perhaps she is comparing Macbeth to herself and is saying that Macbeth is not as ambitious as she is. Lady Macbeth under estimates the powers of her conscience. She see her conscience as her weakness, not realising until after Duncans murder how she will pour[her] spirits in his ear. She has also decided that nothing will stand between him (or her?) and the golden crown ( a metonym for the throne). Lady Macbeth greets her husband like the Witches, which subconsciously links her to evil and believes that her call to the murdering ministers has been answered. She feels now the future in the instant and that she is beyond this ignorant present. This is ironic as Lady Macbeth is still being ignorant. Lady Macbeths confidence is a contrast to Macbeths uncertainty. She advises him to look like the innocent flower but be the serpent undert and to only look up clear. She is in control of their relationship and tries to help Macbeth find the necessary determination to do the deed. Though Lady Macbeth appears to be confident, she uses euphemisms when talking to Macbeth about the nights great business. At this point in the play, Macbeth has been tempted to commit regicide, however he has tried to resist temptation. Macbeths resistance, however, is not vigorous enough to stand up to his wifes ability to manipulate him. The scene closes dramatically with Lady Macbeth emphatic affirmation that Duncans fate rests in her hands- leave all the rest to me. Scene six sees King Duncan arriving at Macbeths castle, he and Banquo talk about how pleasant a place it is to visit. They comment that the air recommends itself and is delicate. This is ironic in view of Lady Macbeths words in the previous scene, and even more so when compared with that of the Witches say about the fog and filthy air surrounding their evil deeds. Duncan also says that he is grateful for the love which is shown to him. Here again, Shakespeare uses dramatic irony. The idea that Duncan feels safe and loved in the surroundings is ironic as this will be the scene of his murder. This creates a sense of anticipation for the audience. It shows Duncans naivety, as he keeps full trust in Macbeth and his fair and noble hostess. We are presented in this scene with images of tranquillity and the words host and guest are repeated. At the beginning of scene seven, we once again see the struggle between the forces of good and evil. Macbeth cannot make up his mind whether to kill Duncan and he wrestles with his conscience in his soliloquy. He knows that the murder would be wrong and would he would end up paying the price for his crime, but he has vaulting ambition that is very persuasive to his conscience. Though Macbeth is driven by his vaulting ambition he redeems himself and will proceed no further in this business, as Duncans murder will be like angels, trumpet-tongud and heaven would be outraged. The verb will shows Macbeths determination to keep his soul. Toward the end of his soliloquy Macbeth compares his excessive ambition to a horse that tries to jump too high and fall on the other side of the fence. Within the soliloquy Macbeths thoughts seem to be fragmented, this is shown by the use of many full stops. Lady Macbeth verbally assaults her husband using violent language that becomes heightened. She accuses him of being a coward and questions his manhood: when you durst do it, she says, then you were a man. She is forceful in her language and she conjures up images of horror. She knows, How tendertis love the babe that milks me: I would, While it was smiling in my face, Have pluckd my nipple from boneless gums, and dashd the brains out Lady Macbeth seems to have been granted her earlier wish to the evil spirits to Fill me from the crown to the toe top-full Of direst cruelty. Macbeths earlier decision not to kill Duncan crumbles under the scornful attack of his wife, especially when his bravery is questioned. However, he is still worried bout what will happen to then if they should fail. Shakespeare cleverly ends the scene with rhyming couplets. Away, and mock the time with fairest show, False face must hide what the false heart doth know. The rhyming couplets symbolise their connection with the Witches and evil as they complete their preparations for murder. The audience waits in anticipation. Throughout Act one Shakespeare creates an atmosphere of tension by exploring the theme of evil against good. Symbolism is used to emphasise this theme. Dramatic irony, dramatic language and strong descriptive scenes also help to build up an atmosphere of tension.

Vascular Plants and Coal Age Flora

Vascular Plants and Coal Age Flora The Rhyniophyta is the most primitive group of vascular plants and appears to be the first one to most of the major divisions of vascular plants. These plants date from the Silurian about 425 million years ago and became extinct in the Devonian about 380 million years ago. Rhyniophyta relatively is one of the simplest vascular plants in structure and is seedless and leafless. The Rhyniophyta had the specialized conducting tissues xylem and phloem as modern higher plants do. Rhynia is probably most important plant in this classification. Rhynia grew from branched rhizome, was inhabitant of marshes, had numerous lateral branches (to 18 cm) and stomata, and its specimens showed first indication of wounding by insects in the form of penetrating wounds, likely by arthropods. I am not very sure about how they became extinct, but by the end of the Devonian, the first seed-forming plants had appeared rapidly. This rapid appearance of so many seed plant groups (called the Devonian Explosion) may have caused the extinction of primitive vascular plants, Rhyniophyta. Also there were climate change and asteroid impact that may affect the extinction in the Devonian. The Coal Age Flora is replaced by cone-bearing gymnosperms (the first true seed plants) and by the first true mosses. Pteridophytes, lyciphytes, and progymnosperms-these more complex groups dated from the late Devonian through the Carboniferous, from about 375 to about 290 million years ago. The Coal Age plants include Lycophyte trees, Calamites, ferns and seed plants. For the important plant in this flora, I would say Lycophyte tree which is the dominant tropical coal swamp plants. It grew to heights of 10 to 35 meters and was sparsely branched. As the swamplands began to dry up and the climate began to change toward the end of Carboniferous, it vanished almost overnight. Question 2 Gymnosperms are primitive seed plants. They are pollinated by wind, and their seeds are exposed, rather than being enclosed within fruits. The word gymnosperm refers to naked seed. The earliest gymnosperms appeared in the Paleozoic and became the dominant plants worldwide throughout most of the Mesozoic until about 100 million years ago. Mesozoic period consists of the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the Cretaceous. Early characteristics of gymnosperms were evident in fossil progymnosperms of the time around 380 million years ago. The important fact of gymnosperms is their seed. All seeds consist of an embryo, stored food, and a seed coat covered by the integuments. Living gymnosperms comprise 4 phyla: the Pinophyta, or the Coniferophyta (Conifers), the Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo), the Cycadophyta (Cycads), the Anthophyta, and the Gnetophyta (Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia). Conifer is the most abundant group of gymnosperms that is still living with about 7 families and about 600 species. Conifer is a woody plant and most are evergreens. The leaves of conifer are long, thin and needle-like such as pine. The seed ferns (Pteridospermales), the Cordaitales (primitive coniferlike plants) and the cycdeoids, or Bennettitales are groups of extinct Gymnosperms. Bennettitales consisted of plants with palmlike leaves and resembles the living cycads. Bennettitales are an enigmatic group of Mesozoic gymnosperms that disappeared during the Cretaceous. During the mid-Mesozoic, pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of scorpionflies that had specialized proboscis for feeding on pollination drops. In the Cretaceous, gymnosperms decline became peak and then extinct at the same time there was the rise of angiosperms, also known as flowering plants. Question 3 Angiosperms, known as flowering plants, appeared at least 125 million years ago in the Cretaceous period, Mesozoic era. The phylum became abundant in most plants of the world within 30 to 40 million years and has remained dominant ever since. Angiosperms constitute the phylum Anthophyta. Two largest classes of Anthophyta are the Monocotyledones and the Eudicotyledones. Flowering plants differ from other seed plants in some unique characteristics such as the presence of endosperm in the seeds. Other distinctive characteristics of Angiosperms are closed carpels, double fertilization leading to endosperm formation, stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs, and the presence of sieve tubes and companinon cells in the phloem. Possible reasons for their success may be various adaptations for drought resistance, including the evolution of the deciduous habit, and the evolution of efficient and specialized mechanisms for pollination and seed dispersal. Other factors that may have influenced its distribution and success can include the pollination interactions with more specialized groups of insects and animals. Angiosperms are pollinated by many kinds of pollinators such as bees, beetles, butterflies, and wasps. The bees especially have the greatest effect on evolution of angiosperms flowers. Bees are the most specialized and constant of flower visiting insects. Hummingbirds, hawkmoths, and bats are also groups of animals that visit and pollinate the plants, but eat lots of nectar of the flowers so that plants have to produce more nectar. Whereas insects and animals can carry pollen greater distances from plant to plant, wind pollination is the best way for individual plants to grow together in a large group. The earliest well known flowering plant is Archaefructus, recently discovered in China. It has slender roots, dissected leaves, and floral axes with closed carpels above, and closed stamens below, as the characteristics of ang iosperms. Question 4 Typical ferns have Haplodiplontic in their life cycle. Mature ferns have sori underside of their leaves. By meiosis, spores are produced in the sporangia. Each spore germinates by itself and becomes gametophyte. In the lower surface, mature gametophyte makes immature antheridium which produces a sperm, and immature archegonium which produces a egg. When there is enough water and the sperm is mature, the antheridium bursts and releases the sperm into archegonium where the sperm and the egg fertilize. By fertilization, zygote begins to divide immediately, becoming a young embryo. The young embryo grows and differentiates by itself into the adult sporophyte, soon obtaining nutrition by photpsynthesis. Once the young sporophyte sprouts in the soil, the gametophyte collapses. Pine trees have two kinds of branch: one with pollen-bearing cones (male) and one with aged ovulate cones (female). Each scale of the male cone bears a microsporangium which later produces microspore mother cells. By meiosis, microspore mother cells produce tetrad of microspores that develop into pollen grains which are made by prothallial cells, tube cells, and generative cells. Pollen grains germinate to produce sperm. Female cone has two denuded ovules in ovuliferous scales, but has no ovary. There is megaspore mother cell in the ovule and by meiosis it is divided into 4 megaspores. Each megaspore grows and becomes archegonia with two egg cells. When the pollen grains are transferred by wind to the female gametophyte, the sperm swims into pollen tube and reaches to the egg. After fertilization, the ovule matures and becomes the seed. While the embryo is developed, the suspensor which connects the endosperm to an embryo disintegrates. The pine seed, made up of an embryo, seed coat, and stored food, is completed. The significant similarity of fern and conifer is that they reproduce spores and they both experience fertilization and meiosis. The significant difference is that conifers are heterosporous, whereas ferns are homosporous. Also conifers have the gametophyte in life cycle whereas ferns have the sporophyte. The significant asset of life cycle with seeds is that pollen needs no special condition to reach the egg since insects, animals or weather (natural pollinators) can help pollination, while seedless plants need moist condition since they are unable to fertilize in dry area. The significant asset of life cycle without seeds is that they can reproduce by themselves, not depending on others. Plants with seeds cannot fertilize if there is a shortage of pollinators. Work Cited Rhyniophyta. (2010, May 5). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:30, July 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhyniophytaoldid=360330161 Geologic time scale. (2010, July 22). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:31, July 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geologic_time_scaleoldid=374824571 Gymnosperm. (2010, July 12). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:32, July 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gymnospermoldid=373096484 Conrad, Jim. Last updated 09.8.29. 7:54:52 . Page title: Gymnosperms. Retrieved from The Backyard Nature Website at http://www.backyardnature.net/gymnos.htm. Flowering plant. (2010, July 21). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:35, July 25, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flowering_plantoldid=374748990 angiosperm. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (July 25, 2010). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-angiospe.html